The Constitution Understood Essay - 686 Words

The Jeffersonian-Republicans are characterized by their strict interpretation of the constitution, in stark contrast with the Federalists loose or broad interpretation. The Federalists believed that anything the constitution did not forbid it permitted, contrary to the Jeffersonian view that anything it did not permit it forbade. The Federalists advocated the â€Å"necessary† and â€Å"proper† clause, and their faith rested heavily in the virtue of implied powers. The Jeffersonian party believed that all powers not specifically granted to the central government were reserved to the states, disregarding the implication of inferred powers. In the late 1700’s both Jefferson and Madison organized an opposition to Hamilton, a federalist. During†¦show more content†¦This is a direct reference to the supporters of the Federalist Party and its â€Å"loose† interpretation of the nation’s charter. In this statement Jefferson expresses a belief that t he Federalist Party is threatening the Union. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;One of the major aspects of the Federalist argument is that anything not forbade in the Constitution is permitted, while the Republicans commend the contrary. Jefferson displays his support for the latter, while speaking with, Presbyterian minister, Samuel Miller. Regarding the governments intermeddling in religious institutions he proclaims â€Å"no power to prescribe any religious exercise, or to assume authority in religious discipline, has been delegated to the general government† . This further shows his support of the states and their rights; he goes on to say â€Å"it must then rest with the states, as far as it can be in any human authority†¦Ã¢â‚¬  . nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;James Madison, as did Jefferson, supported states rights. Similar to the issue of government and religion, Madison in an address to congress vetoed an Internal Improvement Bill, based on the fact that this power is not granted in the constitution. He stated â€Å"the power to regulate commerce among the several states cannot include a power to construct roads and canals† . He continued in saying â€Å"that suchShow MoreRelatedConstitutional Interpretation Essay1012 Words   |  5 Pagesfrom â€Å"How to Read the Constitution† by Christopher Wolfe, and different source’s from Internet. I will start by giving what Wolfe says originalism is, and then I will give some background to other ways to interpret the constitution, and the founders and interpretation and I will finish up with my view on originalism and non-originalism and the critics to that. Wolfe on Originalism Wolfe says that originalism is a two-fold doctrine. 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The focus here has not been what Supreme Court has thought of the term in Article I Section 8 Clause 1, but how others thought of it before and shortly after it even became law. Why was it used, and what was its pedigree to those who decided to put it in the Constitution, and how it was viewedRead MoreThe Constitution Of The United States907 Words   |  4 PagesThe Constitution is a document produced by the Founding Fathers of the United States. It was created to set the rules and limitation of the nation and its people. Moreover, the Constitution was mainly constructed for the people of the nation and for their benefit and knowledge. President Roosevelt refers to the Constitution as a layman s document. By this, he means that the constitution was written for the common man to comprehend with prior expertise in governmental affairs. The ConstitutionRead MoreRatification : The People Debate1728 Words   |  7 Pageshistory being written by winners, the United States Constitution and its ratification process is usually presented as a unifying document establishing a system of government that most efficiently ensures the states’ newly won independence. Those who opposed ratification of the Constitution were seen as against a strong federal governmental power and obstructive in their opposition. In her book, Ratification: The People debate the Constitution, 1787-1788, Pauline Maier examined the often-tempestuousRead MoreThe Legacy Of The American Revolutionary War1435 Words   |  6 PagesAmerican Revolutionary war, the U.S Government, or lack of, was failing under the Articles of Confederation as the law of the land. The Founders knew they had to develop a more stable central government for fear of tearing the nation apart. The Constitution Americans abide by today was then created, but not was not a unanimous decision early on. The Founders knowingly created a republican government, other than a democracy, that would be controlled and governed by a small group of elites to protectRead MoreAlexander Hamilton Vs. Thomas Jefferson887 Words   |  4 Pagesagreeing to disagree over just about every policy being discussed during the establishment of government structure, and decorum. And it is Hamilton’s policies on economics, government structure, and constitution interpretation, which took precedent over Jefferson’s. Hamilton and Jefferson both understood the importance of a Nations economic success and its direct relationship to its government’s strength. However, both developed two economic plans completely opposite the other. Jefferson believedRead MoreDemocracy And Democracy908 Words   |  4 Pagesform the Founders intended for the American government and explain in what ways this nation has strayed from the original form of government created by its Founders. First, the meaning of and difference between a democracy and a republic must be understood. The word democracy, as defined by the Merriam Webster dictionary means â€Å"A government by the people, especially rule of the majority† (â€Å"Democracy†) Likewise, a democracy can be defined as â€Å"a form of government in which the people decide policyRead More Audrey Hofstadter Summary: The Founding Fathers: The Age of Realism 1580 Words   |  7 PagesAge of Realism Summary of Section: I The reasoning behind the Constitution of the United States is presented as based upon the philosophy of Hobbes and the religion of Calvin. It assumes the natural state of mankind in a state of war, and that the carnal mind is at enmity with God. Throughout, the struggle between democracy and tyranny is discussed as the Founding Fathers who envisioned the Constitution in Philadelphia in 1787 believed not in total democracy, but instead saw commonRead MoreAn Adaptable Constitution and Human Rights1637 Words   |  7 PagesUnitarily speaking, the political discourse that is associated with the United States Constitution is unsettling. The line drawn amongst what can be considered a right seems to fluctuate between obscurity and clarity. Although the fluctuation comes at a period of convenience, it is at whose expense that fluctuation comes, ought to be question. The United States Constitution and the term â€Å"rights† are politically, socially, and permanently engaged. Out of the political discourse of assessing what constitute

A Game of Thrones Chapter Five Free Essays

Jon There were times—not many, but a few—when Jon Snow was glad he was a bastard. As he filled his wine cup once more from a passing flagon, it struck him that this might be one of them. He settled back in his place on the bench among the younger squires and drank. We will write a custom essay sample on A Game of Thrones Chapter Five or any similar topic only for you Order Now The sweet, fruity taste of summerwine filled his mouth and brought a smile to his lips. The Great Hall of Winterfell was hazy with smoke and heavy with the smell of roasted meat and fresh-baked bread. Its grey stone walls were draped with banners. White, gold, crimson: the direwolf of Stark, Baratheon’s crowned stag, the lion of Lannister. A singer was playing the high harp and reciting a ballad, but down at this end of the hall his voice could scarcely be heard above the roar of the fire, the clangor of pewter plates and cups, and the low mutter of a hundred drunken conversations. It was the fourth hour of the welcoming feast laid for the king. Jon’s brothers and sisters had been seated with the royal children, beneath the raised platform where Lord and Lady Stark hosted the king and queen. In honor of the occasion, his lord father would doubtless permit each child a glass of wine, but no more than that. Down here on the benches, there was no one to stop Jon drinking as much as he had a thirst for. And he was finding that he had a man’s thirst, to the raucous delight of the youths around him, who urged him on every time he drained a glass. They were fine company, and Jon relished the stories they were telling, tales of battle and bedding and the hunt. He was certain that his companions were more entertaining than the king’s offspring. He had sated his curiosity about the visitors when they made their entrance. The procession had passed not a foot from the place he had been given on the bench, and Jon had gotten a good long look at them all. His lord father had come first, escorting the queen. She was as beautiful as men said. A jeweled tiara gleamed amidst her long golden hair, its emeralds a perfect match for the green of her eyes. His father helped her up the steps to the dais and led her to her seat, but the queen never so much as looked at him. Even at fourteen, Jon could see through her smile. Next had come King Robert himself, with Lady Stark on his arm. The king was a great disappointment to Jon. His father had talked of him often: the peerless Robert Baratheon, demon of the Trident, the fiercest warrior of the realm, a giant among princes. Jon saw only a fat man, red-faced under his beard, sweating through his silks. He walked like a man half in his cups. After them came the children. Little Rickon first, managing the long walk with all the dignity a three-year-old could muster. Jon had to urge him on when he stopped to visit. Close behind came Robb, in grey wool trimmed with white, the Stark colors. He had the Princess Myrcella on his arm. She was a wisp of a girl, not quite eight, her hair a cascade of golden curls under a jeweled net. Jon noticed the shy looks she gave Robb as they passed between the tables and the timid way she smiled at him. He decided she was insipid. Robb didn’t even have the sense to realize how stupid she was; he was grinning like a fool. His half sisters escorted the royal princes. Arya was paired with plump young Tommen, whose white-blond hair was longer than hers. Sansa, two years older, drew the crown prince, Joffrey Baratheon. He was twelve, younger than Jon or Robb, but taller than either, to Jon’s vast dismay. Prince Joffrey had his sister’s hair and his mother’s deep green eyes. A thick tangle of blond curls dripped down past his golden choker and high velvet collar. Sansa looked radiant as she walked beside him, but Jon did not like Joffrey’s pouty lips or the bored, disdainful way he looked at Winterfell’s Great Hall. He was more interested in the pair that came behind him: the queen’s brothers, the Lannisters of Casterly Rock. The Lion and the Imp; there was no mistaking which was which. Ser Jaime Lannister was twin to Queen Cersei; tall and golden, with flashing green eyes and a smile that cut like a knife. He wore crimson silk, high black boots, a black satin cloak. On the breast of his tunic, the lion of his House was embroidered in gold thread, roaring its defiance. They called him the Lion of Lannister to his face and whispered â€Å"Kingslayer† behind his back. Jon found it hard to look away from him. This is what a king should look like, he thought to himself as the man passed. Then he saw the other one, waddling along half-hidden by his brother’s side. Tyrion Lannister, the youngest of Lord Tywin’s brood and by far the ugliest. All that the gods had given to Cersei and Jaime, they had denied Tyrion. He was a dwarf, half his brother’s height, struggling to keep pace on stunted legs. His head was too large for his body, with a brute’s squashed-in face beneath a swollen shelf of brow. One green eye and one black one peered out from under a lank fall of hair so blond it seemed white. Jon watched him with fascination. The last of the high lords to enter were his uncle, Benjen Stark of the Night’s Watch, and his father’s ward, young Theon Greyjoy. Benjen gave Jon a warm smile as he went by. Theon ignored him utterly, but there was nothing new in that. After all had been seated, toasts were made, thanks were given and returned, and then the feasting began. Jon had started drinking then, and he had not stopped. Something rubbed against his leg beneath the table. Jon saw red eyes staring up at him. â€Å"Hungry again?† he asked. There was still half a honeyed chicken in the center of the table. Jon reached out to tear off a leg, then had a better idea. He knifed the bird whole and let the carcass slide to the floor between his legs. Ghost ripped into it in savage silence. His brothers and sisters had not been permitted to bring their wolves to the banquet, but there were more curs than Jon could count at this end of the hall, and no one had said a word about his pup. He told himself he was fortunate in that too. His eyes stung. Jon rubbed at them savagely, cursing the smoke. He swallowed another gulp of wine and watched his direwolf devour the chicken. Dogs moved between the tables, trailing after the serving girls. One of them, a black mongrel bitch with long yellow eyes, caught a scent of the chicken. She stopped and edged under the bench to get a share. Jon watched the confrontation. The bitch growled low in her throat and moved closer. Ghost looked up, silent, and fixed the dog with those hot red eyes. The bitch snapped an angry challenge. She was three times the size of the direwolf pup. Ghost did not move. He stood over his prize and opened his mouth, baring his fangs. The bitch tensed, barked again, then thought better of this fight. She turned and slunk away, with one last defiant snap to save her pride. Ghost went back to his meal. Jon grinned and reached under the table to ruffle the shaggy white fur. The direwolf looked up at him, nipped gently at his hand, then went back to eating. â€Å"Is this one of the direwolves I’ve heard so much of?† a familiar voice asked close at hand. Jon looked up happily as his uncle Ben put a hand on his head and ruffled his hair much as Jon had ruffled the wolf’s. â€Å"Yes,† he said. â€Å"His name is Ghost.† One of the squires interrupted the bawdy story he’d been telling to make room at the table for their lord’s brother. Benjen Stark straddled the bench with long legs and took the wine cup out of Jon’s hand. â€Å"Summerwine,† he said after a taste. â€Å"Nothing so sweet. How many cups have you had, Jon?† Jon smiled. Ben Stark laughed. â€Å"As I feared. Ah, well. I believe I was younger than you the first time I got truly and sincerely drunk.† He snagged a roasted onion, dripping brown with gravy, from a nearby trencher and bit into it. It crunched. His uncle was sharp-featured and gaunt as a mountain crag, but there was always a hint of laughter in his blue-grey eyes. He dressed in black, as befitted a man of the Night’s Watch. Tonight it was rich black velvet, with high leather boots and a wide belt with a silver buckle. A heavy silver chain was looped round his neck. Benjen watched Ghost with amusement as he ate his onion. â€Å"A very quiet wolf,† he observed. â€Å"He’s not like the others,† Jon said. â€Å"He never makes a sound. That’s why I named him Ghost. That, and because he’s white. The others are all dark, grey or black.† â€Å"There are still direwolves beyond the Wall. We hear them on our rangings.† Benjen Stark gave Jon a long look. â€Å"Don’t you usually eat at table with your brothers?† â€Å"Most times,† Jon answered in a flat voice. â€Å"But tonight Lady Stark thought it might give insult to the royal family to seat a bastard among them.† â€Å"I see.† His uncle glanced over his shoulder at the raised table at the far end of the hall. â€Å"My brother does not seem very festive tonight.† Jon had noticed that too. A bastard had to learn to notice things, to read the truth that people hid behind their eyes. His father was observing all the courtesies, but there was tightness in him that Jon had seldom seen before. He said little, looking out over the hall with hooded eyes, seeing nothing. Two seats away, the king had been drinking heavily all night. His broad face was flushed behind his great black beard. He made many a toast, laughed loudly at every jest, and attacked each dish like a starving man, but beside him the queen seemed as cold as an ice sculpture. â€Å"The queen is angry too,† Jon told his uncle in a low, quiet voice. â€Å"Father took the king down to the crypts this afternoon. The queen didn’t want him to go.† Benjen gave Jon a careful, measuring look. â€Å"You don’t miss much, do you, Jon? We could use a man like you on the Wall.† Jon swelled with pride. â€Å"Robb is a stronger lance than I am, but I’m the better sword, and Hullen says I sit a horse as well as anyone in the castle.† â€Å"Notable achievements.† â€Å"Take me with you when you go back to the Wall,† Jon said in a sudden rush. â€Å"Father will give me leave to go if you ask him, I know he will.† Uncle Benjen studied his face carefully. â€Å"The Wall is a hard place for a boy, Jon.† â€Å"I am almost a man grown,† Jon protested. â€Å"I will turn fifteen on my next name day, and Maester Luwin says bastards grow up faster than other children.† â€Å"That’s true enough,† Benjen said with a downward twist of his mouth. He took Jon’s cup from the table, filled it fresh from a nearby pitcher, and drank down a long swallow. â€Å"Daeren Targaryen was only fourteen when he conquered Dorne,† Jon said. The Young Dragon was one of his heroes. â€Å"A conquest that lasted a summer,† his uncle pointed out. â€Å"Your Boy King lost ten thousand men taking the place, and another fifty trying to hold it. Someone should have told him that war isn’t a game.† He took another sip of wine. â€Å"Also,† he said, wiping his mouth, â€Å"Daeren Targaryen was only eighteen when he died. Or have you forgotten that part?† â€Å"I forget nothing,† Jon boasted. The wine was making him bold. He tried to sit very straight, to make himself seem taller. â€Å"I want to serve in the Night’s Watch, Uncle.† He had thought on it long and hard, lying abed at night while his brothers slept around him. Robb would someday inherit Winterfell, would command great armies as the Warden of the North. Bran and Rickon would be Robb’s bannermen and rule holdfasts in his name. His sisters Arya and Sansa would marry the heirs of other great houses and go south as mistress of castles of their own. But what place could a bastard hope to earn? â€Å"You don’t know what you’re asking, Jon. The Night’s Watch is a sworn brotherhood. We have no families. None of us will ever father sons. Our wife is duty. Our mistress is honor.† â€Å"A bastard can have honor too,† Jon said. â€Å"I am ready to swear your oath.† â€Å"You are a boy of fourteen,† Benjen said. â€Å"Not a man, not yet. Until you have known a woman, you cannot understand what you would be giving up.† â€Å"I don’t care about that!† Jon said hotly. â€Å"You might, if you knew what it meant,† Benjen said. â€Å"If you knew what the oath would cost you, you might be less eager to pay the price, son.† Jon felt anger rise inside him. â€Å"I’m not your son!† Benjen Stark stood up. â€Å"More’s the pity.† He put a hand on Jon’s shoulder. â€Å"Come back to me after you’ve fathered a few bastards of your own, and we’ll see how you feel.† Jon trembled. â€Å"I will never father a bastard,† he said carefully. â€Å"Never!† He spat it out like venom. Suddenly he realized that the table had fallen silent, and they were all looking at him. He felt the tears begin to well behind his eyes. He pushed himself to his feet. â€Å"I must be excused,† he said with the last of his dignity. He whirled and bolted before they could see him cry. He must have drunk more wine than he had realized. His feet got tangled under him as he tried to leave, and he lurched sideways into a serving girl and sent a flagon of spiced wine crashing to the floor. Laughter boomed all around him, and Jon felt hot tears on his cheeks. Someone tried to steady him. He wrenched free of their grip and ran, half-blind, for the door. Ghost followed close at his heels, out into the night. The yard was quiet and empty. A lone sentry stood high on the battlements of the inner wall, his cloak pulled tight around him against the cold. He looked bored and miserable as he huddled there alone, but Jon would have traded places with him in an instant. Otherwise the castle was dark and deserted. Jon had seen an abandoned holdfast once, a drear place where nothing moved but the wind and the stones kept silent about whatever people had lived there. Winterfell reminded him of that tonight. The sounds of music and song spilled through the open windows behind him. They were the last things Jon wanted to hear. He wiped away his tears on the sleeve of his shirt, furious that he had let them fall, and turned to go. â€Å"Boy,† a voice called out to him. Jon turned. Tyrion Lannister was sitting on the ledge above the door to the Great Hall, looking for all the world like a gargoyle. The dwarf grinned down at him. â€Å"Is that animal a wolf?† â€Å"A direwolf,† Jon said. â€Å"His name is Ghost.† He stared up at the little man, his disappointment suddenly forgotten. â€Å"What are you doing up there? Why aren’t you at the feast?† â€Å"Too hot, too noisy, and I’d drunk too much wine,† the dwarf told him. â€Å"I learned long ago that it is considered rude to vomit on your brother. Might I have a closer look at your wolf?† Jon hesitated, then nodded slowly. â€Å"Can you climb down, or shall I bring a ladder?† â€Å"Oh, bleed that,† the little man said. He pushed himself off the ledge into empty air. Jon gasped, then watched with awe as Tyrion Lannister spun around in a tight ball, landed lightly on his hands, then vaulted backward onto his legs. Ghost backed away from him uncertainly. The dwarf dusted himself off and laughed. â€Å"I believe I’ve frightened your wolf. My apologies.† â€Å"He’s not scared,† Jon said. He knelt and called out. â€Å"Ghost, come here. Come on. That’s it.† The wolf pup padded closer and nuzzled at Jon’s face, but he kept a wary eye on Tyrion Lannister, and when the dwarf reached out to pet him, he drew back and bared his fangs in a silent snarl. â€Å"Shy, isn’t he?† Lannister observed. â€Å"Sit, Ghost,† Jon commanded. â€Å"That’s it. Keep still.† He looked up at the dwarf. â€Å"You can touch him now. He won’t move until I tell him to. I’ve been training him.† â€Å"I see,† Lannister said. He ruffled the snow-white fur between Ghost’s ears and said, â€Å"Nice wolf.† â€Å"If I wasn’t here, he’d tear out your throat,† Jon said. It wasn’t actually true yet, but it would be. â€Å"In that case, you had best stay close,† the dwarf said. He cocked his oversized head to one side and looked Jon over with his mismatched eyes. â€Å"I am Tyrion Lannister.† â€Å"I know,† Jon said. He rose. Standing, he was taller than the dwarf. It made him feel strange. â€Å"You’re Ned Stark’s bastard, aren’t you?† Jon felt a coldness pass right through him. He pressed his lips together and said nothing. â€Å"Did I offend you?† Lannister said. â€Å"Sorry. Dwarfs don’t have to be tactful. Generations of capering fools in motley have won me the right to dress badly and say any damn thing that comes into my head.† He grinned. â€Å"You are the bastard, though.† â€Å"Lord Eddard Stark is my father,† Jon admitted stiffly. Lannister studied his face. â€Å"Yes,† he said. â€Å"I can see it. You have more of the north in you than your brothers.† â€Å"Half brothers,† Jon corrected. He was pleased by the dwarf’s comment, but he tried not to let it show. â€Å"Let me give you some counsel, bastard,† Lannister said. â€Å"Never forget what you are, for surely the world will not. Make it your strength. Then it can never be your weakness. Armor yourself in it, and it will never be used to hurt you.† Jon was in no mood for anyone’s counsel. â€Å"What do you know about being a bastard?† â€Å"All dwarfs are bastards in their father’s eyes.† â€Å"You are your mother’s trueborn son of Lannister.† â€Å"Am I?† the dwarf replied, sardonic. â€Å"Do tell my lord father. My mother died birthing me, and he’s never been sure.† â€Å"I don’t even know who my mother was,† Jon said. â€Å"Some woman, no doubt. Most of them are.† He favored Jon with a rueful grin. â€Å"Remember this, boy. All dwarfs may be bastards, yet not all bastards need be dwarfs.† And with that he turned and sauntered back into the feast, whistling a tune. When he opened the door, the light from within threw his shadow clear across the yard, and for just a moment Tyrion Lannister stood tall as a king. How to cite A Game of Thrones Chapter Five, Essay examples

The Privatization of Telstra Corporation Limited

Question: Discuss about The Privatization of Telstra Corporation Limited. Answer: Introduction Privatization encompasses the transfer of an enterprise from the public sector to the private sector. The Common Wealth Government of Australia embarked on a partial privatization of its telecommunication assets with the aim of using the proceeds to reduce the government debt and as well as lower the interest rate payment burden. Moreover, it is aimed at opening the market to competition. The focus of this paper is to respond to prompts regarding the privatization strategy employed. Major Decision Making Factors Financial Factors According to Dinc and Gupta (2011), sales are a measure of size, and the ratio of profits to sales is a measure of a companys profitability. A government may have a preference in the privatization of a more profitable firm during its periods of profitability with the aim of having increased proceeds from its privatization. In addition, a government may prefer privatization during this period of high-profit rates as it builds public support because of successful primary sales. Privatization of a firm also leads to greater efficiency. Thus, the decision is placed on the emphasis of greater efficiency of Telstra or anticipated proceeds (Dinc and Gupta, 2011). Political Factors Bortolotti and Faccio (2009), state that politicians may choose to target public funds that may be used in pivotal areas of the economy with the aim of gaining political mileage to win an election. The government may choose areas that tend to receive a lot of public interest, criticisms and advocacy for change through lobby groups (Bortolotti and Faccio, 2009). For this case, decision to make the partial sale of Telstra would have been made to quell critics and substantial public interests that had been placed on the countrys foreseeable unsustainable public debt. In addition, the government may have hoped to gain political mileage through its efforts in environment and wildlife conservation efforts. Monopoly According to Pettinger (2011), deregulation is often accompanied with the privatization of public corporations where policies are made to allow other players into the industry to increase competition (Pettinger, 2011). Doing away with a monopoly in the industry may have been a way in which the government aimed at lowering the cost of telecommunication products through the introduction of monopoly into the sector. The move would also have opened up rural areas to access communication services. Issue Process used by Common wealth Government in both of Telstra Share Offers. Rationale for the use of Installment-Payment and Book-Build instruments in the Sale of Shares Brooks (2010), states that corporations may prefer to use installment payment in the sale of shares for it allows the seller to defer certain taxes that are derived from the income of the sale (Brooks, 2010). According to Bernfield (2015), capital gain tax can be deferred during the full or partial sale of business. Providing a discount of $0.10 per share was also a tool of attracting investors. The use of book-build instruments was also essential for it enables a company to determine the price of a share using the highest bid price (Bernfield, 2015). Advantages of Using Installment-Payment and Book-Build instruments in the Sale of Shares Brooks (2010) states that the sale of shares using installment payment is not only attractive and but also beneficial to potential investors. The technique enables a buyer who may not have the entire required amount necessary to purchase a required number of shares at the time to own shares of the company through a partial payment system. It, therefore, attracts an increased number of investors. Furthermore, the purchaser of shares is able to fully purchase the shares and pay the installment using dividends derived from the companys profits. The company will typically be financing the investor (Brooks, 2010). Drawbacks of Using Installment-Payment and Book-Build instruments in the Sale of Shares An example of a drawback of selling shares using installment payment is that the seller does not get expected proceeds upfront. The occurrence is particularly detrimental is the seller intends on using proceeds on urgent and pending matters (Keck, 2009). Neilson (2014) states that the use of a book-building instrument to determine the worth of a stock may lead to overvaluing a companys stock if a company chooses to determine a price issue using the highest bid price. The use of the instrument may lead to fall in demand and consequently, fall in price (Neilson, 2014). Comparison of Relative Success Levels Associated with Telstra 1 and Telstra 2 The Commonwealth Government was the main beneficiary of Telstra 1 as it received many proceeds from the issue of shares to the public due to the increased value of the shares. At the final installment payment, the share price was at $ 9.15 within the two years of the initial listing date. On the other hand, the public was at a loss because of the devaluing of the companys share. The occurrence meant that if an individual aimed at selling shares purchased during Telstra 1, the sale would be made at a loss. During the Telstra 2 share offer, the Common Wealth government had a low level of success denoted from a low amount of proceeds that was attributed to the falling of the share price. The new shareholders who were members of the public were the beneficiaries in this case for they purchased shares at $5.20 and later sell them at $5.50 per share. The pattern of outcome is consistent with what is suggested by anecdotal evidence. According to Gerardi and Shapiro (2009), increased competition in a sector that a company had a monopoly over makes the company lose some of its market share. Assuming that the population of the market share remains constant, the company eventually reduces its sales and consequently its profitability ratios. The end result will be a decrease in the value of the corporations shares (Gerardi and Shapiro, 2009). Conclusion The paper details major factors that influence the decision whether or not to privatize a corporation. It also details the instruments that can be applied during privatization. The discussion gives insights and predictability in the purchase and sale of shares. It is important to consider companys external environment prior to deciding whether to purchase shares. References Bernfield, W. (2015). Maximizing Tax Benefits of Installment Sales | Certified Public Accountants | Weltman Bernfield. Retrieved September 10, 2016, from https://weltmanbernfield.com/maximizing-tax-benefits-of-installment-sales/ Bortolotti, B., Faccio, M. (2009). Government control of privatized firms. Review of Financial Studies, 22(8), 2907-2939. Brooks, G. (2010). Selling Your Business Using Installment Sales | Exit Plan Pros. Retrieved September 10, 2016, from https://www.exitplanpros.com/2010/02/selling-your-business-using-installment-sales/ Butterworths Journal of International Banking and Financial Law, 485. Dinc, I. S., Gupta, N. (2011). The decision to privatize: Finance and politics. The Journal of Finance, 66(1), 241-269. Gerardi, K. S., Shapiro, A. H. (2009). Does competition reduce price dispersion? New evidence from the airline industry. Journal of Political Economy, 117(1), 1-37. Keck, R. (2009). Installment payments in spectrum auctions and telecom privatizations. Nielson, S. (2014). Why did Facebooks shares fall after its initial public offering? Retrieved September 10, 2016, from https://marketrealist.com/2014/01/facebook-ipo/ Pettinger, T. (2011). Advantages and problems of privatization. Retrieved September 10, 2016, from https://www.economicshelp.org/blog/501/economics/advantages-of-privatisation/

Personality theory

Many people use the term ‘personality’ to identify the characteristics of an individual or the kind of skills a person has. Psychologists who study human personality tend to use idiographic or homothetic techniques in trying to explain the aspects of human behavior. â€Å"Personality theories organize what of which we already know, stimulate new research and give theorists an opportunity to specify a view in personality† (Engler, 2008)Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Personality theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Trait theory Trait theory is the primary personality theory that is biologically based on classical human genetics. Such utterances as being outgoing, kind, hot tempered are some of the words used to describe individual. All this words can be concluded to being the personal traits of an individual. Most of time we use an individual characteristic to explain their behavior. Theo rist who studied this theory focused on the difference in character portrayed by different individuals. The Idea behind this theory is that, how an individual behaves, is dictated by the joint effects of the organisms inherited capabilities and past experience. It centers on the capability of recognizing and measuring a person’s personality. One of the early theorists to study this theory was Gordon Allport in 1937. He began his research after noting that there were almost over 4000 words which could be used to describe character trait of a person from a single dictionary. His approach was based on the differentiating the different types of traits within a person (Richard, 2007). According to him, the central human traits were dictating the personality of individual e.g personality expressions while the secondary human traits were more peripheral and did not manifest immediately. He also thought that the most common traits were the ones which were recognized in a cultural context which varied across different cultural practices. Besides Gordon, Theorists such as William Sheldon also took part in trying to explain the traits theory.Advertising Looking for report on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This theory is argued on the basis of how one would carry out the study which was through idiographic or homothetic techniques. Gordon applied the principles of scientific taxonomy as he studied the character traits of different people, another principle he applied was expanding a unified theory of personality in a general manner other than the specific aspects of it which was later reviewed by Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck (theorists). Important aspects about this theory according to Gordon are that personality is dynamic adult and children have different motivation schemes, he also believes that with a few character traits one can easily explain an individual behavior and conscious va lues can be used to shape the personality of a person. Allport theory is completely viable in the sense that it is credible. Its concept primarily relies on the learning theory, psychoanalysis and existentialism. Although many other theorists find his work more descriptive and it lacks specific propositions from which a researcher can conduct tests and get the result from. The validity of trait measures and its objectivity has been well defined in the five factor model which defines neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness, openness and agreeableness all which have brought order and understanding to the traits theory. Most physiologists assumed that traits could be used to explain human abilities. Issues related to culture, national origin, native language, gender, racial identity are some of the differences between people. These aspects are known to explain the kind of character trait a person is believed to have. It is considered that personality traits structure transcends cultural differences (Engler, 2008). The theory has been used to look at specific cultural manifestations of common personality dimensions especially upon the big five personality traits with the only difference being the modest created for each of these traits.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Personality theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More References Engler, B. (2008).Personality Theories: An Introduction. New York, NY; Cengage Learning, Richard M. (2007). Theories of Personality. New York, NY; Cengage Learning, This report on Personality theory was written and submitted by user Will H. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. Personality Theory Introduction Erik Erikson is a proponent of Freud’s psychosexual development theory supporting Freudian elements of psyche and the concepts of Oedipal and Electra complexes as explanation of sexuality. In his theory of epigenetic psychosocial development of personality, he expanded the Freud’s psychosexual theory by introducing the aspect of society and culture and by adding the principle of epigenetic.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Personality Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Erikson postulates that the genesis of the personality development is from the innate characteristics of a child that are sequentially build through the eight stages of personality development under the influence of the society and culture. Erikson believes that personality development does not end at adolescence as depicted by Freud but it is a lifelong process. Each stage has an optimal time required for th e ego to resolve a psychosocial crisis. The resolution of the psychosocial crises at the preceding stages cumulatively determines the personality. Proper resolution of the psychosocial crisis in each stage result into a personality virtue while poor resolution of the psychosocial crisis result into mal-adaptation and malignancy. Mal-adaptation and malignancy are the anomalies of imbalanced personalities that may occur at each stage. The malignancy is due to skewed ego resolution towards negative personality while mal-adaptation is due to the skewed ego resolution towards positive personality. Hence, the epigenetic psychosocial theory postulates how personality develops from the innate characteristics through into the adulthood by the consecutive and cumulative impacts of the society and culture. The Infant Stage This personality development occurs within the first two years of an infant, a stage known as oral-sensory stage. The psychosocial crisis here is between the trust and mistr ust that depends on the perceived quality of the maternal care by the infant. Proper resolution and balance of the trust and mistrust by the ego, results into a virtue of faith and hope that gives an infant the qualities of patience and tolerance when the needs are not satisfied in time.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These virtues are important in our future personalities, as they will help us â€Å"get through disappointments in love, our careers, and many other domains of life† (Boeree, 2006). Faith and hope will make us endure the hard circumstances we encounter in the society and our work places. Improper and imbalanced resolution of trust and mistrust by the ego will result into malignancy and mal-adaptation. Too much maternal care will result into â€Å"mal-adaptive tendency of sensory mal-adjustment† where an infant will trust anybody through into the adulthood without imagining of possible harm from the strangers. On the other hand, poor maternal care will result into â€Å"malignant tendency of withdrawal† where an infant develops mistrust, depression and psychosis way into the adulthood (Boeree, 2006). An overt trust or mistrust personality affects our relationships in the work place and the society. The Toddler Stage This is the second stage occurring between 2-4 years, and is known as anal-muscular stage. The psychosocial crisis at this stage is the autonomy versus shame and doubt that depends on the degree of the restrictions imposed on the child by the parents. The toddler needs a balance between autonomy, and shame and doubt thus the ego must resolve the psychosocial crisis by balancing the two. According to Boeree (2006) â€Å"proper, positive balance of the autonomy, and shame and doubt, you will develop the virtue of willpower or determination.† The virtue attitude of determination improves our performanc e in the work places and the society. Little or no restriction of a toddler will result into â€Å"mal-adaptive tendency of impulsiveness† where a toddler develops a personality of shameless and overconfidence in which later in adulthood one become over ambitious. On contrary, too much restriction of the toddler will result into â€Å"malignant tendency of compulsiveness† where the toddler loses self-esteem and becomes dependent on the rules and regulation in order to do things perfectly (Boeree, 2006).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Personality Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Preschooler Stage This is the genital-loco motor stage, which occurs at the age of 4-6 years. The psychosocial crisis is between the initiative and guilt at the level of family relation. At this stage, the child develops the capacity of moral judgment and oedipal experience ensues. The virtues of purpose and courage result when the ego resolves and balance the psychosocial crisis between the initiative and the guilt (Davis Clifton 1995). The virtues of purpose and courage help us to be responsible in our work and to the society. If the child has too much initiative, it will result into â€Å"maladaptive tendency of ruthlessness† where the person becomes selfishly objective in life not considering the interest of others. On the other hand, too much guilt will result into â€Å"malignant tendency of inhibition† (Boeree, 2006). The inhibited person becomes reserved and rigid, never to propose anything that is worth doing in the work places and in the society. School Age Child This is the fourth stage in psychosocial development and it occurs between the ages of 6-12 years. The psychosocial crisis is industry versus inferiority that occurs in the context of the community and the school. At this stage, the balance between industry and inferiority results into the virtue of co mpetence (Davis Clifton 1995). The virtue of competence in our lives makes us achieve satisfaction in our work and serving the society. The mal-adaptation of industry will result into narrow virtuosity that is characterized by the narrowness of our minds and interests, hence making us be mere actors of our real characters in the society (Davis Clifton, 1995). The malignancy of inferiority that occur at this stage is the inertia; one become inactive in the work place and in the society due to the feeling of inferiority complex thus the inactiveness makes have poor socialization skills. Adolescence Stage This is the fifth stage occurring between the ages of 12-18 years. The psychosocial crisis is between ego identity and the role confusion in the context of peer groups and role models. The virtue of fidelity is achieved when there is proper resolution of the psychosocial crisis by the ego (Boeree, 2006). Fidelity makes us to conform to the demands of the work and the society in spit e of the challenges.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The anomaly resulting from psychosocial crisis resolution is the identity crisis. Too much of the role confusion will result into â€Å"malignant tendency of repudiation† where one becomes alienated from the mainstream society and get involved with the vices in the society. On the other hand, excess of the ego identity will result into â€Å"mal-adaptive tendency of fanaticism† (Boeree, 2006). Fanaticism makes one to nurture the infallible interests without considering the views of others. Adult Stage These are the sixth, seventh and the eight stages and occur between the ages of 18 and beyond. The psychosocial crises are intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation and integrity versus despair. The psychosocial crises occur in the context of friends, partners, workmates, and the society. If the psychosocial crises are resolved and balanced very well, the virtues of love, care, and wisdom are obtained (Davis Clifton, 1995). The virtues of love and care ar e what makes us a have a healthy relationships with our partners, families, friends, community and the whole society. While the virtue of wisdom makes one approach death with courage and this is the gift to the children as â€Å"healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death† (Davis Clifton, 1995). The mal-adaptations at these stages are the promiscuity, overextension, and presumption. The mal-adaptations results into loose behavior at young adult, overworking in the middle adult and presumptuous character. In contrast, the malignant tendencies are exclusion from relationships in the young adult, middle life crisis of rejectivity and disdained in the life of the old (Cherry, 2010). These malignancies and mal-adaptations are the personalities the society is trying to avoid in the bid to build a better society. Conclusion The epigenetic psychosocial personality development theory clearly elucidates the sequentially development of pe rsonality from the innate personality of an infant through into the old through a cumulative effect of the societal and cultural factors. This theory is consistent with the Freud’s psychosexual theory with extension of the developmental stages into eight as compared to the five stages of psychosexual theory. Moreover, the aspects of culture and society have been incorporated together with the epigenetic concept. Balanced and proper resolution of the psychosocial crises at the stages results into personality virtues while skewed resolution of the crises results into personality anomalies of ma-adaptation and malignancy. The personality virtues and anomalies determine our roles in the work places and in the society. References Boeree, G. (2006). Erik Erikson: Personality Theories. Psychology Department  Shippensburg University. Retrieved from http://www.social-psychology.de/do/pt_erikson.pdf Cherry, K. (2010). Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development. Psychology. W eb. Davis, D., Clifton, A. (1995). Psychosocial Theory: Erikson. Haverford. Retrieved from http://ww3.haverford.edu/psychology/ddavis/p109g/erikson.stages.html This research paper on Personality Theory was written and submitted by user Aryana P. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. Personality Theory Introduction Personality theories are conceptions that have been propagated by psychologists and academicians from time immemorial. The attempt at defining personality is guided by the intent of trying to understand and explain the psychological distinctiveness and similarities that people exhibit. This essay will critically analyze the cause of different personalities or character traits among individuals. The analysis will put into consideration the various theories that have been posited in effort to explain the same. This essay is largely informed by chapter 11 of the book â€Å"Psychology† by Hockenbury Hockenbury. In the book â€Å"psychology†, fifth edition, Hockenbury Hockenbury (458), observe that one has to understand the theory upon which the description of an individual’s personality is based in order to understand and make sense of the different characteristics of that personality type.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Persona lity Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Hockenbury Hockenbury (458) further argue that there are clear explanations for the different characteristic in different personality types. Some of the theories discussed by Hockenbury and Hockenbury include the psychoanalytic theory, the social cognitive and humanistic perspective, the behavioral genetics theory and the trait theory. An analysis of these theories shows that one’s personality is dynamic and is dependent of many factors. For instance, as per the behavioral genetics theory, the manner in which a person behaves is influenced by inherited traits. On the other hand, the trait theory posits that one’s personality is dependent on what he or she has learnt from experience. The biological dimension indicates that the personality of our parents and fore-parents rubs on us. Each person gains something, in terms of personality trait, over time in the course of his own n atural growth and development. This means that a child will partly possess the character traits inherited from his family or parents and equally incorporate some characters he learns in his childhood into his or her persona. â€Å"The girl with a dragon tattoo†, is a movie that was produced in the ghettos of the US by Jermaine Dupree. This movie was geared towards highlighting the other face of the US. Unlike the much-publicized good life in America, which characterized by conspicuous consumption, fun and liberty, there are neighborhoods in the USA where crime and poverty among other ills abound. The movie rotates around one character, a girl by the name Lisbeth Salander. Salander is born and brought up in the ghetto from which the movie is shot. Her mother, Megan Salander, bore her after she was heartlessly gang raped by a group of young men who were drug peddlers for having failed to pay a drug debt. Being a drug addict herself, she did not care about the consequences of th at act, as she was already accustomed to bigger shocks and harsher treatments. For the mother, Lisbeth was born after or because of a bad accident and therefore was not a fruit of love. This meant that from the onset the mother treated Lisbeth unlovingly. Actually, many of her mother’s friends marveled and believed that it was by a miracle that the poor girl survived an abortion. Analysis of Lisbeth’s Traits Based on Personality Theories The life of lisbeth confirms some of the personality theories discussed in Hockenbury Hockenbury. For instance, after watching the movie, one cannot fail to relate the personality theory of behavioral genetics exemplified in the life of Lisbeth Salander. In the movie, the girl is portrayed as having a variety of character traits. Interestingly, when one compares her with the mum one can clearly differentiate the characters she inherited from her mother and those she picked along the way. The semblance between the character traits of L isbeth and her mother tend to confirm the theory that some character traits are genetic based.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Considering the psychoanalytic perspective on personality, lisbeth’s behavior can be understood as defense mechanisms she develops in order to survive in her environment. Sub-consciously, having had an unloving mother, she tends towards being defensive. Among her dominant traits highlighted in the movie is brutality. This particular trait is observed from her very early life. Psychoanalytically, it could be argued that love needs from since when she was born drive her towards hate. The girl was practically vicious in everything she did. At a mere age of three, she had already caused enough damage to many children of her age. This meant that many parents in the neighborhood would rarely allow Lisbeth to get anywhere close to their children. Eventually, the child was left with few if any child to play with. Matters deteriorated when she joined school. The very first day at school was met with untold hostility from her to the rest of the pupils. She actually managed to ruin another girl’s face using one of her toys. The girl in question had to undergo medical treatment, as she needed several stitches to bring her angelic face back to normal. By the time Lisbeth was halfway through her school life, she had been transferred to uncountable schools. This restless behavior could be explained psychoanalytically, but it could also be explained in terms of an under compensated ego as per the socio-cognitive perspective. Lisbeth could be said to have had an undercompensated ego due to the unloving childhood. Nobody in here social environment affirmed her. Consequently, desiring affirmation or due to reciprocal determination found in her social environment, she had literally appeared on the black book for record times in every school s he attended. She was always referred as the ‘special one’, by not only her fellow pupils but her teachers as well. In Lisbeth’s actions, one discerns desire to proof herself. One incident that prompted the authority to seek psychiatrist help for the girl was an instance of madness she got involved in with a boy in their class. Many knew the boy in question for his brutality, and practically he was certainly not just any other push over. He was hugely built and this meant that many of his colleagues were no much to his strength. The only mistake the boy did was to undermine the capability of Lisbeth. Being a small and lean girl, the bullyboy was sure of beating hell out of her head. He managed and actually beat her into a pulp.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Personality Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More At least for a while, the rest of the school was in high spirits that some medicine had actually been discovered to heal Lisbeth extraordinary craziness. They were all mistaken. The next few days were hell to Lisbeth and she did not dare get out of their house as she had a black eye. Upon resuming school, her mission was clear, at least to herself, she was a girl going after revenge. It did not take long for the Physical Exercise class to come, and they were all thrown out of class into the field. In total amazement to many pupils and teachers, she was very active that particular day on the hockey pitch. The first swing she made with her stick left the boy who had bullied her without at least six teeth according to those who could count them. Her comment was simple, it must have been an accident and that she was sorry. That was her last day in school. The behavioral genetics theory, arguably, also captures or explains Lisbeth’s character. The neighborhood, in which Lisbeth was brought up, was literally for the outcast in the society. The only thing that was not done there was merely the one that did not exist. By this notion, every kid was somehow an expert in many evils and prostitution or sexual immorality was their favorite. As many would guess, Lisbeth was not an exception. At a tender age of fifteen, she had literally graduated from sleeping with boys, and not many grown up men could equally meet her urge. Considering the trait theory, one discerns impulsiveness, disnihibition and elements of introversion in Lisbeth’s character. Lisbeth was widely known to be a loner, which is a trait of introverts. However, she approached issues with much impulsiveness, obsession and worrying novelty. One thing that amazed many people, those that were fortunate to interact with her, because she was a loner, was her brilliance in using and manipulating a computer. According to her own explanation, having been raised by many trustees, one of them was a computer scientist and it was from his motivation that she actually developed interest in computers. The most fascinating thing was how even the most qualified computer scientist, could not be able to handle some of the tasks she used to perform with no basic formal training.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Conclusion From the discussion on Lisbeth, as portrayed in the movie â€Å"the girl with a dragon tattoo†, it is clear from the onset that individuals acquire character traits from their parents i.e. inheritance but also from environment i.e. learning behavior of a neighborhood. There is a lot of things or happenings in Lisbeth’s life that confirm that character traits are inherited while there is enough to confirm as well that character traits are learnt from the environment. Lisbeth, one of the main characters from the movie ‘The girl with a dragon tattoo’ tends to resemble her mother in many ways. From being hostile, immoral but very brilliant, one can tell that she took after her mother. Lisbeth is strategic and does her things meticulously but with very selfish intentions and she is never remorseful about her dirty life. Such a disposition, it can arguable be asserted that she acquired it from living in her neighborhood. Work Cited Hockenbury, Don Ho ckenbury, Sandra. Psychology, New York: Routledge Publishers, 1991. Print. This essay on Personality Theory was written and submitted by user Mae Fisher to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Sexual Response Cycle

The Sexual Response Cycle When Masters and Johnson (1966) did their research studies, they did find that there are similarities between the sexual response cycle for men and the sexual response cycle for women. Masters and Johnson to used the term, "sexual response cycle" to describe the changes that occur in men's and women's bodies when the experience sexual arousal. For the purpose of this study, Masters and Johnson determined that the sexual response cycle should be divided into four distinct phases. These phases begin with excitement, proceeding then to plateau, and then one reaches a peak during orgasm, and then experiences the resolution phase.During the first phase of excitement that this study identifies, the subjects experience something that the study personnel refer to as vasocongestion. Vasocongestion is a condition in which the genital tissues swell as they begin to fill with blood and dilate. This occurs in both men and women as they begin to feel sexual arousal.It starts with her beauty in my eyes, it moves to ...When a man experiences vasocongestion, his genital tissues undergo pronounced changes. As blood diverts into the tissues of the penis, it enlarges both in length as well as in girth, becoming an erection. In younger men, vasocongestion can create an erection in three to eight seconds after sexual stimulation begins. While the penis is erect, it becomes hardened and rigid as if it were nothing more than skin covering over a bone. This condition is the basis for the popular slang term, boner. A man will also experience swelling in his testicles, nipples and in his earlobes. Vasocongestion also causes a thickening of the scrotal skin, making it less baggy.Similarly, when a woman experiences sexually arousal, vasocongestion causes swelling of her genital tissues. A woman will notice a swelling of the area surrounding the vaginal opening as well as in her nipples. Females...

Fish Weir - Ancient Fishing Tool of Hunter-Gatherers

Fish Weir - Ancient Fishing Tool of Hunter-Gatherers A fish weir or fish trap is a human-made structure built of stone, reeds, or wooden posts placed within the channel of a stream or at the edge of a tidal lagoon intended to capture fish as they swim along with the current. Fish traps are part of many small-scale fisheries around the world today, supporting subsistence farmers and sustaining people during difficult periods. When they are built and maintained following traditional ecological methodologies, they are secure ways for people to support their families. However, local management ethics have been undermined by colonial governments. For example, in the 19th century, British Columbias government passed laws to prohibit fisheries established by First Nations people. A revitalization effort is underway. Some evidence of their ancient and continuing use is found in the wide variety of names still used for fish weirs: fish impoundment, tidal weir, fishtrap or fish-trap, weir, yair, coret, gorad, kiddle, visvywer, fyshe herdes, and passive trapping. Types of Fish Weirs Regional differences are apparent in construction techniques or materials used, species harvested, and of course terminology, but the basic format and theory is the same world-wide. Fish weirs vary in size from a small temporary brush frameworks to extensive complexes of stone walls and channels. Fish traps on rivers or streams are circular, wedge-shaped, or ovoid rings of posts or reeds, with an upstream opening. The posts are often connected by basketry netting or wattle fences: the fish swim in and are trapped within the circle or upstream of the current. Tidal fish traps are typically solid low walls of boulders or blocks built across gullies: the fish swim across the top of the wall at spring high tides, and as the water recedes with the tide, they are trapped behind it. These types of fish weirs are often considered a form of fish farming (sometimes called aquaculture), since the fish can live in the trap for a period until they are harvested. Often, according to ethnographic research, the fish weir is regularly dismantled at the beginning of the spawning season, so fish may freely find mates. Invention and Innovation The earliest fish weirs known were made by complex hunter-gatherers all over the world during the Mesolithic of Europe, the Archaic period in North America, the Jomon in Asia, and other similarly dated hunter-gatherer cultures around the world. Fish traps were used well into the historic period by many groups of hunter-gatherers, and in fact still are, and ethnographic information about historic fish weir use has been gathered from North America, Australia, and South Africa. Historical data has also been collected from medieval period fish weir use in the UK and Ireland. What weve learned from these studies gives us information about the methods of fish trapping, but also about the importance of fish to hunter-gatherer societies and at least a glimmer of light into traditional ways of life. Dating Fishtraps Fish weirs are difficult to date, in part some of them were used for decades or centuries and were dismantled and rebuilt in the same locations. The best dates come from radiocarbon assays on wooden stakes or basketry which were used to construct the trap, which only dates the latest rebuild. If a fish trap was completely dismantled, the likelihood that it left evidence is very slim. Fishbone assemblages from adjacent middens have been used as a proxy for the use of a fish weir. Organic sediments such as pollen or charcoal in the bottoms of traps have also been used. Other methods used by scholars include identifying local environmental changes such as changing sea level or the formation of sandbars that would impact the weirs use. Recent Studies The earliest known fish traps to date are from Mesolithic sites in marine and freshwater locations in the Netherlands and Denmark, dated to between 8,000 and 7,000 years ago. In 2012, scholars reported new dates on the Zamostje 2 weirs near Moscow, Russia, of more than 7,500 years ago. Neolithic and Bronze Age wooden structures are known at Wooton-Quarr on the Isle of Wight and along the shores of the Severn estuary in Wales. The Band e-Dukhtar irrigation works of the Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian Empire, which includes a stone weir, dates between 500–330 BCE. Muldoons Trap Complex, a stone-walled fish trap at Lake Condah in western Victoria, Australia, was constructed 6600 calendar years ago (cal BP) by removing basalt bedrock to create a bifurcated channel. Excavated by Monash University and the local Gundijmara Aboriginal community, Muldoons is an eel-trapping facility, one of many located near Lake Condah. It has a complex of at least 350 meters of constructed channels running alongside an ancient lava flow corridor. It was used as recently as the 19th century to trap fish and eels, but excavations reported in 2012 included AMS radiocarbon dates of 6570–6620 cal BP. The earliest weirs in Japan are currently associated with the transition from hunting and gathering to farming, generally at the end of the Jomon period (ca. 2000–1000 BC). In southern Africa, stone-walled fishtraps (called visvywers) are known but not direct-dated as of yet. Rock art paintings and fish bone assemblages from marine sites there suggest dates between 6000 and 1700 BP. Fish weirs have also been recorded in several locations in North America. The oldest appears to be the Sebasticook Fish Weir in central Maine, where a stake returned a radiocarbon date of 5080 RCYPB (5770 cal BP). Glenrose Cannery at the mouth of the Fraser River in British Columbia dates to about 4000–4500 RCYBP (4500-5280 cal BP). Fish weirs in southeastern Alaska date to ca. 3,000 years ago. A Few Archaeological Fish Weirs Asia:  Asahi (Japan), Kajiko (Japan)Australia:  Muldoons Trap Complex (Victoria), Ngarrindjeri (South Australia)Middle East/West Asia:  Hibabiya  (Jordan),  Band-e Dukhtar  (Turkey)North America:  Sebasticook (Maine),  Boylston Street Fish Weir  (Massachusetts), Glenrose Cannery (British Columbia), Big Bear (Washington), Fair Lawn-Paterson Fish Weir (New Jersey)UK:  Gorad-y-Gyt (Wales), Wooton-Quarry (Isle of Wight), Blackwater estuary weirs (Essex), Ashlett Creek (Hampshire)dRussia:  Zamostje 2 The Future of Fish Trapping Some government-sponsored programs have been funded to blend traditional fish weir knowledge from indigenous peoples with scientific research. The purpose of these efforts is to make fish weir construction safe and productive while maintaining ecological balances and keeping the costs and materials within the range of families and communities, especially in the face of climate change. One such recent study is described by Atlas and colleagues, on weir construction for the exploitation of sockeye salmon in British Columbia. That combined work by members of the Heiltsuk Nation and Simon Fraser University to rebuild weirs on the Koeye River, and establish fish population monitoring. A STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education program has been developed (Kern and colleagues) to engage students in the construction of fish weirs, the Fish Weir Engineering Challenge. Sources Atlas, William I., et al. Ancient Fish Weir Technology for Modern Stewardship: Lessons from Community-Based Salmon Monitoring. Ecosystem Health and Sustainability 3.6 (2017): 1341284. Print.Cooper, John P., et al. A Saxon Fish Weir and Undated Fish Trap Frames near Ashlett Creek, Hampshire, Uk: Static Structures on a Dynamic Foreshore. Journal of Maritime Archaeology 12.1 (2017): 33–69. Print.Jeffery, Bill. Reviving Community Spirit: Furthering the Sustainable, Historical and Economic Role of Fish Weirs and Traps. Journal of Maritime Archaeology 8.1 (2013): 29–57. Print.Kennedy, David. Recovering the Past from above Hibabiya - an Early Islamic Village in the Jordanian Desert? Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 22.2 (2011): 253–60. Print.Kern, Anne, et al. The Fish Weir: A Culturally Relevant Stem Activity. Science Scope 30.9 (2015): 45–52. Print.Langouà «t, Loà ¯c, and Marie-Yvane Daire. Ancient Maritime Fish-Traps of Brittany (France): A Reappraisal of the Relationship between Human and Coastal Environment During the Holocene. Journal of Maritime Archaeology 4.2 (2009): 131–48. Print. Losey, Robert. Animism as a Means of Exploring Archaeological Fishing Structures on Willapa Bay, Washington, USA. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 20.01 (2010): 17–32. Print.McNiven, Ian J., et al. Dating Aboriginal Stone-Walled Fishtraps at Lake Condah, Southeast Australia. Journal of Archaeological Science 39.2 (2012): 268–86. Print.OSullivan, Aidan. Place, Memory and Identity among Estuarine Fishing Communities: Interpreting the Archaeology of Early Medieval Fish Weirs. World Archaeology 35.3 (2003): 449–68. Print.Ross, Peter J. Ngarrindjeri Fish Traps of the Lower Murray Lakes and Northern Coorong Estuary, South Australia. MSc, Maritime Archaeology. Flinders University of South Australia, 2009. Print.Saha, Ratan K., and Dilip Nath. Indigenous Technical Knowledge (Itk) of Fish Farmers at Dhalai District of Tripura, Ne India. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 12.1 (2013): 80–84. Print.Takahashi, Ryuzaburou. Symbiotic Relations between Paddy-Field R ice Cultivators and Hunter-Gatherer-Fishers in Japanese Prehistory: Archaeological Considerations of the Transition from the Jomon Age to the Yayoi Age. Senri Ethnological Studies. Eds. Ikeya, K., H. Ogawa and P. Mitchell. Vol. 732009. 71–98. Print.

Open-door policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Open-door policy - Essay Example A key component of improving safety is to proactively identify hazards which when not removed, have potential to cause harm. Everybody’s input is necessary to ensuring a safe environment for all. Sometimes, undesired events which under slight different circumstance such as time, speed or distance could have resulted in significant harm. These events are known as a near miss. Safety concern is any observed event or situation that if left unchanged, could result in an incident, maybe a near miss or accident. Lost time accidents (LTA) are accidents which could otherwise be avoided but did not hence resulting to an accident that cost the company money and time.These events and concerns can appropriately be reported to the supervisor who will forward to the company safety committee through the use of safety concern cards. The Near Miss/LTA/Safety Concern program is a "no blame" method of reporting potential hazards. The primary goal is to focus on preventing and minimizing future h azards. This provides an opportunity to fix the system before it breaks, recognize symptoms of broken processes, and recommend improvements to improve safety at the workplace. An employee will fill the safety concern card, which is readily available on bulletin boards and give it to the supervisor, who will review the safety concern to determine the root cause and add corrective actions that comply with OSHA practices (Moran, 2011). He/she will then contact safety team via safety representative, who will input data into safety reporting system.... Safety Director. Safety Concern Card A key component of improving safety is to proactively identify hazards which when not removed, have potential to cause harm. Everybody’s input is necessary to ensuring a safe environment for all. Sometimes, undesired events which under slight different circumstance such as time, speed or distance could have resulted in significant harm. These events are known as a near miss. Safety concern is any observed event or situation that if left unchanged, could result in an incident, maybe a near miss or accident. Lost time accidents (LTA) are accidents which could otherwise be avoided but did not hence resulting to an accident that cost the company money and time. These events and concerns can appropriately be reported to the supervisor who will forward to the company safety committee through the use of safety concern cards. The Near Miss/LTA/Safety Concern program is a "no blame" method of reporting potential hazards. The primary goal is to focus on preventing and minimizing future hazards. This provides an opportunity to fix the system before it breaks, recognize symptoms of broken processes, and recommend improvements to improve safety at the workplace. An employee will fill the safety concern card, which is readily available on bulletin boards and give it to the supervisor, who will review the safety concern to determine the root cause and add corrective actions that comply with OSHA practices (Moran, 2011). He/she will then contact safety team via safety representative, who will input data into safety reporting system. The safety team will then provide technical assistance and also evaluate corrective actions to ensure regulatory compliance. Verbal report of injury policy From

Leading in a changing word Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Leading in a changing word - Essay Example The leadership styles should be capable of responding to changes in customer demands, economic changes, political changes and changes in the expectations of the employees (Judge and Piccolo 2004: 755-768). According to the competency framework of leadership development, leaders are expected to deliver, build and drive organisational success. Leaders should create a plan and make decisions with confidence while managing ambiguity (Ibarra & Hansen 2011: 71). The leader should also drive change, innovation and make initiatives that unlock new business opportunities in order to satisfy customer changing needs. A leader should coach and mentor the subordinates while encouraging feedback and performance evaluation. Adair’s leadership model is an action-centered leadership model that asserts that leadership can be applied like a tool and concentrates on the ability of the leader to inspire a shared vision. (Adair 1973). According to Adair (2003: 04), the leader should provide directi on, build effective teams and set an example for the followers. This model asserts that the leadership style will depend on the character of the leader and unique situation including the needs of the followers and level of task differentiation. The leader should build the team spirit, ensure team cohesiveness and establish proper communication channels (Ibarra & Hansen 2011: 75). Transformational leadership model also provides the guidelines of leading in a changing business environment (Judge and Piccolo 2004: 755-768). This model of leadership requires the leader to intellectually stimulate the ideas of the followers through articulating a clear vision and expressing confidence (Mullins, 2010). Individualised influence and inspirational motivation of the leader ensures that the employees express their creativity. In addition, the leader acts as an example thus modeling the behaviour of subordinates. On the other hand, the model fails in supporting the unique cultural background of the diverse workforce since employees have different norms and values depending on their cultural norms (Judge and Piccolo 2004: 755-768). The above challenge can be addressed by ensuring that the leader gains the trust of followers and cordial working environment in order to support teamwork (Mullins, 2010: 378). Another leadership style is the situational leadership style that combines task behaviour and relationship behaviour. According to this theory, there is no one acceptable model of leadership. Ideally, this model asserts that leaders should change their leadership approach depending on the unique tasks and relationship with followers (Lord and Brown2001: 133-152). The model is acceptable since leaders need to cultivate enabling relationship with the followers. In addition, some tasks may be clearly defined thus requiring minimal leader intervention. In the changing business environment, leaders will be required to change their leadership approach depending on the underlyin g situation such as the level of relationships, the degree of task differentiation, the use of controls such as rewards and punishments in the organisation (Judge and Piccolo 2004: 755-768). The other model of leadership is transactional leadership. Transactional leaders emphasize on the task outcomes and mainly rely on power systems and control in order to attain the desired goals. This style is fair to all employees since everybody is expected

Political Culture Essay Example for Free

Political Culture Essay The single greatest contributor to the way American Politics plays out both within and outside of our borders today is in our rich and long-lasting political culture that defines they way we look as the world and how to respond to it. Shaped by values, history, current events, and emotional commitments that our populace collectively shares, political culture in the United States determines the way government functions and reveals the intricacies of our collective way of life in a way nothing else can. Throughout our nations history there have been three different types of political culture proposed by three different authors as stated below. The first model of conceptualized liberty is a tradition of longstanding liberalism maintained by Myrdal in Wilsons American Politics. Claiming that Americans naturally crave their individual rights and want their liberty to constitute freedom within the law to do whatever they want as their own person, he states we are a self concerning people with central regard for our own lives independent of the rest of the nation. This style of political culture emerged the greatest during the 60s when individualists like hippies and protestors came out against the large Model II type government that strove to provide and manage the people in the overbearing sense it did. Todays culture draws strong parallels to liberalism as well, with most Americans concerned for their own rights first. An example of this is the dog laws imposed in New York where dogs cannot be off a leash or make excessive noise in Central Park that distracts other people. Some people feel they are having their right to quiet and safety violated by these dogs and the laws behind them, while others maintain it is their right to have dogs and be able to run them freely. The second claim is of political culture is the one that was created in the grand scheme by the founding fathers and proposed by Hartz. This perception of liberty claims that there is a collectivist notion of unity among the people that promotes the general welfare of the nation as a whole and not just based on individual rights. First established by puritan settlers who wanted to build a city on a hill with a strong central purpose and unity among its citizens, the concept of a strong government that united the people in one common goal to achieve the greater good became known as republicanism. This concept of liberty is alive today as the populace stands united against the global threat of terrorism that threatens all Americans equally. To protect each other and nation as a whole Americans look to the greater good beyond their personal rights to sustain the nations security. An example is in peoples ability to forego some of their individual rights in the patriot act or at airports to give up some privacy to keep them safe from terrorists in order to maintain the greater good of the nation. The third perception of liberty is proposed by Roger M. Smith who states that America is traditionally hierarchical and is driven by social and economic classes that preside over others. This concept has been prevalent for hundreds of years in times of slavery and civil unrest when African Americans and other surges of immigrants were oppressed and looked upon as outsiders by the White Anglo-Saxon Protestants that formed the backbone of the nation. While civil rights have been passed to make the nation equal for all, Smith argues an underlying factor of racism and inequality among minorities still lingers in the heart of America. An example of this is the Duke Lacrosse Scandal where three elite white males were charged in the rape of a black woman and media frenzy that ensued around it. Claiming that the white males thought themselves superior and able to escape consequences for crimes against minorities, African American leaders such as Al Sharpton and Jesse Jackson came out in force to lead rallies for their prosecution. Another parallel is Hurricane Katrina and the thousand of black residents displaced by it in 2005. Most of the 9th district of New Orleans was destroyed by the storm because it sat unprotected and vulnerable and to this day it remains in shambles with little done to improve the area. Smith would argue this is because of the racial and economic hierarchy that differentiates the poor African American residents of the area from the white controlling politians with the power to do anything about it. While all these three conceptions of liberty are prevalent and present in todays political culture, the structure of our government and the speed with which the world changes does not allow any one style to dominate the rest. Americans live off and pride themselves on their civil individual rights while at the same time unifying collectively to stand as one against outside threats like terrorism. There is some hierarchical dissonance that remains in the actions of many government officials and elite pockets of society separated from citizens of different economic standing and ethnicity, but after the civil rights laws were passed the vast majority of these problems have been removed. This leaves the United States with a balanced and ever changing political culture that hinges back and forth between the three conceptions of liberty.

The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality :: History Historical Racial Essays

The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality The Afro-Cuban struggle for equality essentially began after the emancipation of the slaves in 1886. This struggle would continue until 1912, when a brutal government massacre ended their hopes of real equality. The Afro-Cuban struggle for equality was a key issue in Cuba’s fight for independence, as well as, Cuba’s fight to find its identity and character. The first attempt to unite the Afro-Cuban community was the formation of the Directorio Central de las Sociedades de la Raza de Color in 1887. This was the first black political party within Latin America. "The main focus of the struggle led by these Afro-Cubans and the Directorio was equal rights and equal protection under the law." [35] The Spanish did not see the Directorio in the same manner. They thought it was a tool, used by blacks and mulattos that used racism against whites in order for the black population to take over Cuba. When the black community said they wanted to be considered equals, the white community was hearing another Haiti. They feared that the black community was going to revolt against them and try to take over the whole country. This white fear was at the core of the equality issue and represents the white person’s main rejection of equality. The Afro-Cuban community tried to explain the Directorio by "explaining that the Directorio was not a black party uniting Afro-Cubans in a supposed hatred of whites. It was the opposite of a racist movement and struggled to suppress racism." [52] Afro-Cubans knew that they would never be accepted as equals with the white class, so they helped decided to help aid in the cause for independence of Cuba from Spain. They hoped that if they helped fight to win their countries independence, they would be able to achieve greater equality and a better role in society. †¦their goal was probably not only independence from Spain but also the creation of a new society in which they would fully participate. Blacks rebelled against racism and inequality, landless peasants regardless of race stood up for land, popular cabecillas wanted political power, and orientales in general hoped to gain control of their region’s destiny. The potential for the war to become a social revolution was strong indeed. [57] The war was a colorless one. Cubans fought next to Cubans. Cubans looked at the war as a new beginning.

Restrictions on Imports of Agricultural/Horticultural Products into the UK:

Agriculture, horticulture and fisheries sector constitute a vital part of the economy of the country of UK. Contributing â‚ ¤.6.6 billion in a year to the economy and employing more than half a million people, agricultural sector is predominant in the development of the UK economy.In the recent years economic, environmental and consumer pressures have a very strong influence in the development of these sectors of the economy. The key consumer drivers of agricultural and horticultural sectors have been identified as the rising prices and the growing demand for the ‘organic’ products.In spite of consumer resistances, Genetic-Modification technologies are also taking active part in the development of new varieties of products. However the sector remains one of the most regulated in the UK and also internationally.There have been numerous import restrictions including licenses and duties to control the movement of agricultural and horticultural products into the UK.This p aper brings out a short report on the prevailing regulations on the imports, reasons for such regulatory measures and the possible ways of overcoming such restrictions to boost up the import of agricultural and horticultural commodities.2.0 Restrictions on the Import of Agricultural and Horticultural Products into UK:According to the web page of Business Link, there are no restrictions for importing agricultural and horticultural products from any other member countries of the European Union, however subject to the payment of applicable VAT and Excise duties.For importing these products from other countries it is necessary to comply with the import licensing requirements and common customs tariff of the EU.2.1 Import Licenses:Import restrictions on the Agricultural and Horticultural products are exercised through the import licenses. The import licenses may be product-specific or trade-specific. Detailed and exhaustive provisions have been made for the standards to be maintained in respect of different products.Similar provisions have been made for imports to be supported by applicable certificates, licenses and other documentary requirements. In addition to the requirements of certificates and other documents, quantitative restrictions and anti dumping duties have been imposed in respect of the import of certain commodities.Department of Trade and Industry is the regulatory authority governing the imports.The plants which carry a high risk of serious pests or diseases require a ‘plant passport’ to move the products within the EU. Another requirement is the production of a phytosanitary certificate for the import of plant products from outside the EU.The imports of Agricultural products form nations other than the members of the EU countries are governed by the Common Agricultural Policy. The products covered under the policy require a ‘CAP import license; and other items need to be covered by a ‘tariff rate quota’ depending on the origin of the respective goods.In order to ensure that the wood used for packaging of the agricultural products are treated to the international standards and also to prevent the pest infestation and diseases the shipments of the products packaged in wood containers also need a phytosanitary certificate.3.0 Reasons for Restriction on Imports:Severe restriction have been imposed on the import of agricultural and horticultural products in to UK mainly with a view to ensuring the health and safety of the people of the country as these products are susceptible to contaminations and may cause the passing of multifarious diseases.Besides the heath and safety there are other reasons also which attribute to these stringent measures of import restrictions and control. They are:To maintain the quality of the products entering the country so that they meet with the domestic business standards prescribed for the agricultural and other products. To have a very tight control on the quantity o f the agricultural and horticultural products entering the country. These are in addition to the qualitative restrictions. This is mainly to protect the domestic agricultural sector as it contributes heavily to the economy of the country To ensure that the ultimate consumers get the commodities with adequate quality standards and sub standard produce is not dumped into the country To maintain the rules and regulations in conformity with those of the other countries of the world with whom UK has bilateral trade agreements or other understandings To impose an effective control on the packaging of the goods so that the goods are delivered to the ultimate consumers in a perfect shape and quality in such a way that the consumer gets the maximum for what he is paying

Resotech Inc.

Resotech Inc. Time is a critical strategic challenge. For example, assume you are a customer being interested in a particular product. This product is very expensive and long lasting. It’s capacity is more than you need. Once you’ve bought it, you can use it for decades. Even product improvements and new versions would only rarely make you buying a new one, simply because they’re incredible expensive. A secondary market to sell the product might exist, but anyway you’d have to sell it at a discount due to technology improvements.The main question for you as a consumer is the following: How many products do you buy? The answer is simple: One. What does that mean for companies offering solely such a product? If a customer buys a particular product only once and stays with it, only one company can serve this customer. The company, that first sells to him or her, wins. The competitors have no chance to convince the customer to switch or to buy the next time fr om them, since there is no next time. This reveals our strategic challenge: Time. If a company is the first launching a product, it has a first-mover-advantage.If a company is second, a part of the market is already served, hence, the total demand and the maximum revenues decreased. How can companies be successful in such an environment? There’s only one way: Be the first! Either because there’s no follower (you’re a monopolist), or because you launch the product earlier than your competitors do. This implies for any company that whatever it does, it must ensure that the product is launched before the competitors launch their products (staying out of the market is no option since it’s the company’s only product).This brings us to the question of available resources. How many resources you have to invest to be the first mainly depends on how many resources your competitor’s are investing. Moreover, if they suddenly increase their investments trying to outpace you, you should be able to react. What does that mean for Resotech Inc.? The company is known for its amazing quality. The products are of superior technology and benefit from a â€Å"Rolls-Royce† image. This implies that a lot of time must be spent on R&D for developing a mobile scanner of such a quality.Delivery delays are possible, or even probable, as it were the case for the RS-1000. Moreover, the development might also lead to a delay of the RS-2000 due to limited R&D resources. And what if the competitors enter the market as well? One can argue that Resotech might be able to discourage other companies to enter the mobile market once they committed themselves. However, this is unlikely for two reasons: First, Resotech is a relatively small company. Larger companies such as GE, Siemens, and Picker will probably have a shorter product development cycles due to their huge financial reserves and experience.Second, Resotech aims for high quality products. C ompetitors are able to produce less advanced scanners and enter the market first. In contrast, this is no option for Resotech. Moreover, Resotech would have to acquire new personnel first. To summarize, Resotech could sell 25 units. However, there’s a risk that Resotech is not able to stick to its delivery schedule, since the development of a mobile product is â€Å"not a piece of cake†. This may result in penalties. Additionally, if we try to stick to the schedule with a less advanced product, we will damage our image as quality leader.Moreover, what if 25 units are not enough to break even and another competitor has already entered the market? If Resotech accepts the offer, it won’t have any spare resources to accelerate R&D to outpace potential entrants. On top of that, we put the RS-2000 at a risk of being launched too late, since we might face a shortage of R&D capacity for both products. Therefore, from a time point of view, I recommend to decline the offe r. Thereby we can focus on the RS-2000 and launch it earlier. Declining would be less risky, but maybe less profitable. It’s the safe way.

Identification of Gram negative bacteria using biochemical tests, including API The WritePass Journal

Identification of Gram negative bacteria using biochemical tests, including API Abstract Identification of Gram negative bacteria using biochemical tests, including API AbstractIntroductionMethodConclusionReferencesRelated Abstract Four pure, unidentified cultures of (gram positive cocci) bacteria, labelled A-D were cultured on various agar media. Also an API test was simulated to identify another unidentified bacterium. Identification of bacteria is important when choosing an effective treatment for a microbial-causing illness. This experiment focused on the cultural and biochemical characteristics of bacteria in aid of identification. Under aseptic conditions, each of the four unidentified bacterium were cultured using the bile aesculin, manitol salt and the blood agar plates provided. These were then incubated for over a week and then observed. A catalase and Voges-proskauer were also carried out to verify the identity of the 4 strains of bacteria. Bacteria that produced air bubbles in the catalase test (as oxygen is one of the products formed, in the presence of the enzyme catalase) and a red colour change for the Voges-proskauer (bacteria is able to produce a compound called acetylmethylcarbinol), both ind icative of a positive result. For simplicity, the end cultures were compared with a table of results provided in the experiment to confirm the identity of Enterococcus faecalis, Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes bacteria. The first culture easily identified as Streptococcus pyogenes   produced a visible ÃŽ ²-haemolysis on blood agar; with an obvious clear zone around the colonies and was also unable to grow on manitol salt agar. The other strains were then determined from the various biochemical tests, as all bacterium possess particular characteristics that distinguish them from other genera. The bacterium used in the API was identified as Staphlyococcus. aureus, by use of an identification table, provided by the manufacturer of the API. However in a normal setting various other tests would have to be conducted to conclude the genus and species of the bacteria. Introduction Gram positive and gram negative bacteria have a rigid cell wall called peptidoglycan and this can be used to distinguish between the two groups. Gram positive bacteria have a very thick outer layer of peptidoglycan. They also have the lipopolysaccharide layer absent. (Madigan et al., 2009) Gram positive bacteria usually appear purple and gram negative bacteria can be red to pink in colour with the use of gram staining. (Madigan et al., 2009) Once established the fact that the bacterium belong to gram positive group, the Dichotomous Key of Gram Positive bacteria can be used to differentiate bacteria by use of various biochemical tests. (Willey et al. 2008) The isolation and identification of bacteria is an essential diagnostic tool in microbiology, especially investigating pathogenic bacteria that cause infectious diseases. The clinician and microbiologist work together in this identification process. (Willey et al. 2008) Samples from the suspected infected area of a patient can be extracted and grown aseptically on agar medium to avoid contamination; these mixed cultures are then separated to produce single colonies of a genus bacterium. The shape of the bacteria can be determined by microscopy (using gram staining or other staining techniques for acid-fast bacteria), and culturing of the bacteria on various media – selective, differential and certain characteristic (metabolic) media. (Willey et al. 2008) Selective media only allow certain bacteria to grow, whilst differential media are used to distinguish bacteria from others, in the presence of some form of dye or indicator. (Madigan et al., 2009)   It is also important to note the conditions bacteria are able to grow in, as some may tolerate the presence of oxygen (aerobes) whilst others will not (anaerobes). The presence of specific enzymes enables aerobic bacteria to grow, whilst anaerobic bacteria cannot. (Madigan et al., 2009)   Voges-Proskauer tests distinguish bacteria that are able to produce fermentation, especially when they cannot respire aerobically. (Willey et al. 2008) When microscopy and culturing methods alone are not adequate enough to identify a species, specific biochemical tests are carried out. These tests are used to eliminate the number of possible pathogens causing the illness in question; by comparing the unidentified pathogen with the known metabolic characteristics stored on computer databases. (Madigan et al., 2009) These may include testing for products the bacterium may produce (due to a presence of specific enzyme/s) or even their ability to grow on either selective or differential media or a combination of the two. However some require further investigative tests to identify the bacteria. (Madigan et al., 2009)  Ã‚   An example is the coagulase test, which differentiates S.aureus from S.epidermidis, coagulase has the ability to clot plasma. (Willey et al. 2008)   Once the bacteria have been identified, antibiotic sensitivity tests (susceptibility tests) may be performed in order to determine which antibiotic/s would be most ef fective in treating the illness related to the microorganism. (Willey et al. 2008) The ability of bacteria to produce catalase is an important biochemical characteristic, aerobic bacteria are able to secrete specific enzymes this characteristic can be manipulated in identification. (Madigan et al., 2009)   Aerobic bacteria are able to neutralise hydrogen peroxide (that would otherwise be toxic to it) by converting it to water and oxygen. Bubble formation would indicate a positive result of this reaction taking place. (Greenwood et al., 2007) This test helps to identify streptococcus from staphylococcus. (Willey et al. 2008) Further more some bacteria may have the ability of secreting other enzymes like superoxide dismutase and peroxidise. This depends on the growth conditions the bacteria require, to neutralise free (unpaired) oxygen radicals that would otherwise destroy the normal functioning of bacterial cells. These radicals are the result of oxygen being reduced in the electron transport chain.   (Willey et al., 2008) Indicator medium of blood agar (usually containing horse blood) is used for the haemolysis test to indicate if the bacterium produces a specific toxin (haemolysin) this is a common virulence factor that pathogenic bacteria possess. A positive result indicates the bacterium possesses this toxin. (Willey et al. 2008)   The toxin is able to lyse erythrocytes by forming pores in the cell surface, releasing its contents – haemoglobin and other ions. (Willey et al., 2008) This can be observed on blood-agar as a clear halo with no distinct colour around the colonies, called ÃŽ ²-haemolysis. Partial (ÃŽ ±) haemolysis leaves a slight green discolouration, as hydrogen peroxide oxidises haemoglobin to methaemoglobin. (Greenwood et al., 2007) Bile aesculin agar is selective and differential, black formation on the culture plate would indicate the ability of the bacterium to hydrolyse aesculin and mix with ferric citrate. (Mahon and Manuselis, 2000) The manitol salt agar is an example of selective media that only allows growth of specific bacteria to grow, thus it can be used in biochemical tests. This is due to the high concentration of salt within this medium, which inhibits most bacteria from growing. (Mahon and Manuselis, 2000) Rapid identification of a microorganism can be determined by the use of an API (Analytical Profile Index) or manual ‘kit’ (Willey et al. 2008)  Ã‚   that contains 20 microtubules with dehydrated substrates, once inoculated with bacteria and left to incubate; the various wells produce colour changes when reagents are added. These colour changes are related to the metabolic characteristics of specific bacteria that can be matched to an identification table. The use of current technology enables one to study the genomic and antigenic structure of microorganisms and is thus useful in identification. The use of PCR and electrophoresis can be used in Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST) and genomic fingerprinting. (Willey et al. 2008)  Ã‚   Also the various surface proteins especially antigens can be identified for its interaction with particular antibodies by immunofluorescence or agglutination technique. This technique may yield rapid results and streptococci associated with sore throats can be identified this way; however these tests are not as accurate as the culturing techniques. (Champoux et al., 2004) New and more accurate technologies are being studied such as the use of Biosensors. (Willey et al., 2008) Staphylococci have a round shape (from the Greek word ‘kokkos’ meaning a berry.) these bacteria form clusters like grapes (derived from the Greek word ‘staphule’) Staphylococci also have a slime layer, and are mainly found on the surface of skin.(Heritage et al., 1999) These aerotolerant anaerobe are able to grow in either aerobic or anaerobic conditions. Although Staphylococcus aureus is harmless living on the surface of the skin, it is able to cause serious illness like septicaemia when it enters open wounds. (Mandal et al., 1996) This bacterium can also become an opportunistic pathogen, responsible for epidemics like MRSA due to resistance of the antibiotic methicillin and emerging resistance to vancomycin. (Willey et al., 2008) A quick biochemical test called Staphaurex can also be used. (Willey et al., 2008) Streptococci are facultative anaerobes and do not form any gas products, as they produce lactic acid fermentation and will therefore catalase negative. (Willey et al., 2008)   The streptococcus genera cover an extensive group of bacteria – the cocci that are spherical in shape and thus placed into 3 groups: pyogenic, oral and other (colon) streptococci. (Greenwood et al., 2007)   Virulence factors produced by the pathogenic bacteria (pyogenic) like the presence of streptolysin, have the ability to lyse erythrocytes and can inhibit the host’s immune response as it kills leukocytes. Haemolysis is a key step to identify pyogenic (harmful) streptococci from other streptococci. (Willey et al., 2008) The species E. faecalis can be found in the intestinal tract, it has the ability to cause opportunistic infections like urinary tract infections (UTI) and also is able to grow in 6.5% sodium chloride, and can resist certain antibiotics. (Willey et al., 2008)   The enterococcus group are closely related to the streptococcus group, but are associated more within the intestinal area. (Champoux et al., 2004) The species M.luteus are obligate aerobes in that they rely completely on oxygen to survive and so can be found on one’s own microbiota, the surface of skin. (Madigan et al., 2009) Method A week before identification, 4 unidentified pure strains labelled (A-D) were each cultured on blood, bile aesculin and manitol salt agar that corresponded to each letter. The streak-plate technique was applied, a loop used to transfer the bacteria to the agar plates was sterilised under an open flame and left to cool, before each set of streaks. After a week, the agar plates were all examined and the type of results they produced was recorded. A single colony (seen by naked eye) was removed from the original (ordinary) agar plates. Each of these was inoculated over a few days and used for the Voges-Proskauer test. The reagents alpha napthol and 40% KOH were added, the tubes were then observed for colour changes. Also a catalase test was carried out, an inoculated loop was used to transfer a small amount from each strain (from the ordinary agar plates) to a microscope slide and hydrogen peroxide was added. Those that bubbled were noted as positive. All results from the various bioche mical tests were compiled in table format the catalase; Voges-Proskauer; haemolysis (blood agar); ability to produce aesculetin (bile agar) and ability to grow (on manitol salt agar). The 4 strains of bacteria were thus identified. Separately, an API test was simulated of an ‘unidentified’ staphylococci bacterium. Each well of the incubation box for the API was filled with distilled water followed by an ampoule of the bacteria which was inoculated and prepared to the correct McFarland standard tube of 0.5. Mineral oil filled the outlined wells. The box was incubated for a few days; reagents were added to the corresponding wells and after 10 minutes observed for colour changes. Reagents VP1 and VP2 were added to the VP well; NIT1 and NIT2 to NIT well and lastly Zym A and Zym B to PAL well. The test colour result for each well was then noted (either positive or negative) on an API Staph strip and matched with the identification table of the various Staphylococcus species. The staphylococcus species was thus identified. Results The 4 unidentified strains (labelled A-D) were exposed to various biochemical tests, the results from these are given below. Table 1: Results from the gram positive strains Results from the API test: A bacterium was then identified by the use of API test, a colour indication table was also provided to determine if the results were positive or negative. These results were jotted down on a test strip and compared with a test table to identify the species of Staphyloccocus. Figure 1: Test strip Figure 2: Identification Table of Staphylococcus species   (Provided by API Manufacturer) Discussion  Ã‚   Observation of the colour and characteristics of the pathogen, with the use of various biochemical tests can identify the bacterium causing the infection. (Madigan et al., 2009) This can be applied in this experiment. Referring to Table 1: The ability to produce haemolysis is dependent on bacteria to secrete a toxic substance called haemolysin, which is able to lyse red bloods cells. Thus blood agar is used which is a differential medium. (Willey et al., 2008) The type of haemolysis bacteria produce can be observed by the naked eye, as clearing zones around the colonies. A ÃŽ ²-haemolysis results in distinct, colourless clear zones of colonies, as the erythrocytes (of the blood agar) have completely lysed. The species S. pyogenes has the ability to secrete exotoxins, depending incubation conditions it will either secrete Streptolysin-O (anaerobic) or Streptolysin-S (aerobic). The pyogenic bacteria are distinguished from other streptococci by producing ÃŽ ²- haemolysis. (Willey et al., 2008) Whilst ÃŽ ±-haemolysis is the partial destruction of erythrocytes with some clearing and slight green discolouration, it is not as distinct as ÃŽ ²-haemolysis. The green tinge is a result of haemoglobulin being oxidised. Conversely M luteus and E. Faecalis produce Æ”-haemolysis i.e. no colour change or clearing zone on the agar as the bacteria are unable to produce haemolysin. (Greenwood et al., 2007) Furthermore the Lancefield method together with haemolysis testing can be used to identify pathogenic streptococci from other less evasive streptococci. (Greenwood et al., 2007) The Lancefield method involves the agglutination of antibodies with the cell wall antigens (C polysaccharide) each serotype is classified A-T, depending on the sort of antigen-polysaccharide nature of this reaction. (Willey et al., 2008). Voges-proskauer is used to indicate if the bacteria in question produce fermentation, this would depend on their culture needs – especially anaerobic bacteria which are unable to respire without the electron transport chain. (Willey et al., 2008) The red colour produced is a test positive for the production of acetoin or acetylmethylcarbinol in glucose fermentation. (Champoux et al.,2004) Referring to Table 1, S. aureus tests positive as it’s a facultative anaerobe. (Willey et al., 2008) Whilst M. luteus and Str. pyogenes can grow in aerobic conditions and so do not require the principles of fermentation, they test negative. Conversely, unlike anaerobes ability to produce fermentation, most aerobes possess the enzyme catalase. A positive catalase test results in bubble formation when hydrogen peroxide is added to a bacterium. The enzyme catalase is able to form water and oxygen from hydrogen peroxide. (Madigan et al., 2009)   The Streptoccocus pyogenes produce no gas, and instead utilise lactic acid to break down sugars. (Willey et al., 2008)   They catalase negative as the enzyme catalase is not present; so cannot break down hydrogen peroxide to form water and oxygen. (Greenwood et al., 2007) Staphylococcus tests positive and can utilise glucose to form acidic products. (Madigan et al., 2009) It’s also an aerotolerant anaerobe, it may lack the enzyme superoxide dismutase which can break down superoxide radicals, but can make use of manganese ions instead. This may have been an adaptative mechanism when the very first forms of bacteria were exposed to oxygen. (Madigan et al., 2009)   This en zyme is common in most pathogenic bacteria, and increases their virulence by neutralising the otherwise toxic hydrogen peroxide and minimizing death by phagocytosis by host cells. (Champoux et al., 2004)   M. luteus grow in aerobic conditions and can only utilise glucose in these conditions, this would explain why it would catalase positive, to neutralise toxic hydrogen peroxide.   (Madigan et al., 2009) Bile aesculin agar is selective and differential, black formation on the culture plate would indicate the ability of the bacterium to hydrolyse aesculin and mix with ferric citrate. (Mahon and Manuselis, 2000) The presence of bile salts will inhibit some types of bacteria like S. pyogenes and M.luteus (as seen on Table 1) Manitol is a selective media, only allowing some bacteria to tolerate it, like S. aureus   and E. faecalis. They are both able to utilise manitol by fermenting it to produce acid, thus lowering the pH the agar changes from red to a yellow colour as a result.   Incubation of S. aureus is slightly longer, and so a coagulase test can also be implemented. (Mahon and Manuselis, 2000)   Whilst haemolysis identifies pathogenic streptococci like Str. pyogenes, the manitol agar identifies pathogenic staphylococci. Also Str. pyogenes cannot grow on this agar, and so no visible colonies are formed. (Willey et al., 2008) While M. luteus has the ability to grow on manitol salt agar (visible colonies), so one would assume that it cannot utilise manitol, as there is no colour change present as it cannot produce acid. As mentioned, there are various API tests available; this experiment used an API Staph Test which identified Staphylococcus, micrococcus and kocuria genera. (CITATION)   The test kit was compared with the colour change table of the various substrates (when reagents are added) and the API test strip was marked accordingly for a positive or negative result. The test strip (Figure 1) was then compared to the identification table (Figure 2) and the unknown bacterium was identified as S. aureus. The limitations of this test is that a pure culture of bacteria must be used and that API’s are specific for a particular genera of bacteria, various API tests are available (biotech.ug.edu.pl/odl/biochem/api.html) these include an API 20E to identify Enterobacteriaceae (Willey et al., 2008) Also any experimental error like not adding reagents correctly to specific well can also give false positives, thus not correctly identifying the species. Conclusion Identification of gram positive bacteria can be achieved by carrying out various biochemical tests.   Differential media like blood agar is useful in identifying the type of haemolysis and thus the pathogenicity of various bacteria (streptococci). Selective media like manitol salt agar inhibits growth of certain bacteria like streptococci, whilst also determining the presence of particular enzymes by the end products produced, this can be observed by colour changes. Various other biochemical tests are available and can produce rapid results – like the API. The simulation of identifying bacteria in this experiment, accentuated how vital these tests are in order to treat patients effectively. However it should be noted in realistic settings further biochemical tests and the use of modern technologies may be required to correctly identify microorganisms. References Greenwood, D.; Slack, R.; Peutherer, J., Barer, M. 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